Table 2 Summary of 26 studies showing outcome parameters and whether zooprophylaxis is effective or not in malaria control

Lyimo et al., [58]

An. arabiensis

Mosquito mortality, fecundity

90% of mosquitoes fed on fungus-treated cattle become infected immediately and 70% of the infections occurred after three days.

Yes (if cattle treated with bioinsecticide)

Kaburi et al., [53]

An. gambiae complex, An. funestus

Man biting rate, HBI, CSP

MBR ratio decreased significantly, with RC of (−0.96; SE = 0.834; P = 0.017). HBI decreased significantly with RC of (0.239; SE = 0.039; P = 0.015 [P < 0.05]), especially in households with >4 cattle.

Yes (if cattle and LLINs co-applied)

Bulterys et al., [49]

An. arabiensis, An. funestus

Parasite prevalence

The risk of P. falciparum infection (aOR = 0.13; 95%CI = 0.03–0.56) was reduced.

Yes (if cattle sheds are separated from human quarters)

Fritz et al., [59]

An. gambiae s.s., An. arabiensis

Mosquito density, HBI

90% mortality of mosquitoes were fed on ivermectin-treated cattle.

Yes (if cattle treated with systemic insecticide)

Muriu et al., [54]

An. arabiensis, An. pharoensis, An. funestus

HBI, bovine blood index

71.8% indoor and 41.3% outdoor collected mosquitoes, respectively, were fed on bovine.

Yes

Mahande et al., [55]

An. arabiensis, An. gambiae

Mosquito density, HBI

90.3% of mosquitoes were trapped by cattle odor and 9.7% of mosquitoes were trapped by human odor (P = 0.005). A lower HBI was recorded in both the outdoor (0.1–0.3) and indoor (0.4–0.9) collected mosquitoes.

Yes (if cattle kept in human surroundings)

Mahande et al., [83]

An. arabiensis

Mosquito mortality, HBI,

50% of mosquitoes fed on treated cattle were knock downed 21 days after treatment.

Treated cows caused higher mortality (mean = 2) as compared to untreated cows (m = 0.3).

Yes (if cattle is treated with deltamethrin every three weeks)

Iwashita et al., [50]

An. arabiensis, An. gambiae s.s, An. funestus s.s

Mosquito density, CSP rate

40.5% (CI: 36.9–44.2) of An. arabiensis fed on cattle, 12.0% (CI: 9.7–14.6) of An. arabiensis fed on humans; ITNs and cattle associated with decreased CSP.

Yes (if cattle co-applied with ITNs)

Seyoum et al., [71]

An. arabiensis, An. pharoensis

HBR, parasite prevalence

HBRs of An. arabiensis in mixed and separate cattle and without cattle were 8.45, 4.64, and 5.97, respectively. Similarly, mean parasitemia were 26.7%, 15.0%, and 23.85%, respectively.

Yes (if cattle is separated from human dwelling)

Habtewold et al., [52]

An. arabiensis, An. quadriannulatus

Mosquito density, HBI

A significantly higher proportion of mosquitoes was fed on livestock in site C compared to site A (χ ² = 44.1, Df = 1, P < 0.001) or B (χ ² = 25.9, Df = 1, P < 0001).

Yes (in certain areas)

Rowland et al., [60]

An. stephensi, An. culicifacies

Mosquito mortality, parasite prevalence

56% reduction in P. falciparum malaria; 31% reduction in P. vivax malaria

Yes (if cattle treated with insecticides)

Foley et al., [61]

An. farauti

Mosquito mortality

80–100% mortality observed in mosquitoes fed on treated cattle in the first three days after treatment.

Yes (if cattle treated with insecticides)

Hewitt and Rowland, [62]

An. stephensi, An. culicifacies

Mosquito mortality

50% reduction in longest vector survivors

Yes (if cattle treated with insecticides)

Temu et al., [64]

An. gambiae complex, An. funestus

Malaria incidence

Increased risk of malaria incidence (OR = 3.2; 95%CI: 2.1–4.9)

No

Tirados et al., [70]

An. arabiensis, An. pharoensis

Mosquito density,

There was no significant difference in mean An. arabiensis density (means = 24.8 and 37.2 mosquitoes/night, respectively; n = 12, P > 0.22) caught outdoors by HLC with or without a ring of cattle. The catch of An. arabiensis in human-baited traps (HBT) was 25 times greater than in cattle-baited traps (CBT) (34.0 vs. 1.3, n = 24; P < 0.001) whereas, for An. pharoensis there was no significant difference.

No

Bouma and Rowland, [66]

–

Parasitemia

Malaria prevalence (15.2%) was significantly greater among children of families which kept cattle than among those which did not (9.5%)

No

Yamamoto et al., [51]

An. gambiae s.l., An. funestus

Mosquito density, parasite prevalence

Positive correlation between donkeys and An. gambiae indoors (Pearson’s r = 0.21, P = 0.0002)

No

Githinji et al., [67]

An. gambiae s.l.

Parasitemia

53% increased risk of acquiring malaria if oxen kept in the house

No

Deressa et al., [68]

–

Parasitemia

Sharing house with livestock increases the risk of malaria (OR = 1.3, 95%CI: 1.1–1.6)

No

Tirados et al., [30]

An. arabiensis, An. pharoensis

Mosquito density, HBI, CSP

The HBIs for outdoor and indoor mosquitoes were 51% and 66%, respectively. CSP for P. falciparum and P. vivax were 0.3% and 0.5%, respectively. Five times more mosquitoes inside human baited trap.

No

Idrees and Jan, [81]

Parasitemia

Higher malaria burden was documented among children of families which kept cattle (11.20%) than among those which did not keep it (7.10%)

No

Ghebreyesus et al., [69]

–

Parasitemia

Sleeping with animals in the house was significantly associated with risk of malaria (RR = 1.92, 95%CI: 1.29–2.85)

No

Palsson et al., [65]

An. gambiae Culex Aedus

Mosquito density

Presence of pigs in a house was associated with increased mosquito abundance in the bedrooms of the same house.

No

Bøgh et al., [57]

An. gambiae, An. arabiensis, An. melas

Parasitemia

No significant differences in either the risk of parasitaemia (OR = 1.69, P = 0.26) or in high-density parasitaemia (OR = 0.73, P = 0.54).

Either (No significant differences in either the risk of parasitaemia)

Habtewold et al., [63]

An. arabiensis, An. pharoensis, An. tenebrosus

Mosquito mortality

Deltamethrin applied to Zebu cattle was able to provoke up to 50% mortality in mosquitoes for the 1st four consecutive weeks and then its efficacy declined after wards.

Either (reduction in density was not significant)

Mayagaya et al., [82]

An. gambiae s.l. An. funestus s.l.

Mosquito density

CSP, HBI

No significance difference in mean mosquito density in households with and without livestock. Lower sporozoite rate was observed in houses with livestock however, other compounding factors should be accounted

Either