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Table 2 Meta-regression analysis of sources of heterogeneity and factors associated with the variation of prevalence of active tobacco smoking in people living with HIV ongoing antiretroviral therapy

From: Global burden of active smoking among people living with HIV on antiretroviral therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis

 

No. studies

No. participants

Univariable model

Multivariable model

  

n = 329

n = 462 104

Prevalence difference (95% confidence intervals)

P value

R2, %

Adjusted prevalence difference (95% confidence intervals)

P value

LR test

Country level of income

   

 < 0.0001

39.4

  

0.023

 Low

30

11 329

Ref

  

Ref

  

 Lower-Middle

21

9858

9.1 (− 1.4 to 20.7)

0.091

 

− 0.7 (− 4.3 to 3.0)

0.916

 

 Upper-Middle

39

8252

25.9 (15.4 to 37.2)

 < 0.0001

 

10.0 (6.3 to 13.9)

0.092

 

 High

216

339 022

51.2 (41.1 to 62.0)

 < 0.0001

 

13.8 (9.2 to 18.6)

0.047

 

 Multi-region

23

93 643

26.4 (14.7 to 39.4)

 < 0.0001

 

− 2.0 (− 6.3 to 2.5)

0.776

 

UNAIDS

   

 < 0.0001

45.3

  

 < 0.0001

 West and Central Europe and North America

203

293 547

Ref

  

Ref

  

 West and Central Africa

12

4 868

− 40.9 (− 46.5 to − 34.6)

 < 0.0001

 

− 32.0 (− 35.1 to − 28.8)

 < 0.0001

 

 Eastern and Southern Africa

34

12,676

− 33.3 (− 37.4 to − 29.0)

 < 0.0001

 

− 26.0 (− 28.9 to − 22.9)

 < 0.0001

 

 Eastern Europe and Central Asia

2

264

− 2.2 (− 23.3 to 24.6)

0.865

 

5.5 (− 2.6 to 14.4)

0.650

 

 Latin America and the Caribbean

24

16 385

− 16.0 (− 21.9 to − 9.6)

 < 0.0001

 

− 13.9 (− 17.1 to − 10.6)

0.020

 

 Asia and the Pacific

27

16 352

− 12.4 (− 18.2 to − 6.0)

0.0002

 

− 4.9 (− 7.6 to − 2.1)

0.388

 

 Middle East and North Africa

3

320

− 12.0 (− 28.1 to 7.6)

0.212

 

− 10.9 (− 17.1 to − 4.3)

0.401

 

 Multi− region

24

117 692

− 11.5 (− 17.7 to − 4.9)

0.0009

 

− 4.0 (− 7.1 to − 0.9)

0.622

 

Percentage of males

    

13.4

   

 Increase of 10%

301*

446 434

3.3 (2.2 to 4.3)

 < 0.0001

    

Duration since diagnostic infection

    

5.7

   

 By increase of 5 years

119*

68 194

6.4 (3.0 to 10.0)

0.0004

    

Duration of antiretroviral therapy

    

0.8

   

 By increase of 5 years

98*

117 811

4.1 (0.5 to 7.9)

0.0285

    

Mean age

    

4.0

   

 By increase of 10 years

290*

380 280

6.0 (2.2 to 10.1)

0.0002

    

Response rate

    

0.1

   

 < 80% or not described

172

268 253

Ref

     

 ≥ 80%

157

193 851

− 1.2 (− 6.1 to 3.8)

0.628

    

Sampling method

    

0.9

   

 Non probabilistic

277

436 880

Ref

     

 Probabilistic

52

25 224

− 5.5 (− 11.8 to 1.1)

0.102

    

Timing of data collection and analysis

   

0.238

1.3

   

 Prospectively

261

317 315

Ref

     

 Retrospectively

50

129 628

4.6 (− 2.4 to 12.2)

0.205

    

 Both

1

957

42.4 (− 8.7 to 122.2)

0.119

    

 Unclear

17

14 204

4.0 (− 7.1 to 16.5)

0.493

    

Precision

    

0.8

   

 Low

197

30 651

Ref

     

 Acceptable

132

431 453

− 4.1 (− 8.9 to 0.8)

0.102

    
  1. ART Antiretroviral therapy, UNAIDS Joint United Program on HIV, NA Not applicable, LR Likelihood ratio
  2. *Missing data were imputed