Table 6 Conceptualisations, definitions and measurements of risk perception in eligible studies (n = 56)

Abdi et al. 2015 [45]

Kenya

Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

General adult population

To assess the knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding RVF among a pastoralist community

KAP

Perceived severity (RVF is a dangerous disease)

Perceived likelihood (you are at a risk of RVF infection)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; 5-point Likert-type scale

Abou-Abbas et al. 2020 [73]

Lebanon

COVID-19

Health professionals

To assess the knowledge and practices of physicians regarding COVID-19, and to evaluate their fear towards COVID-19 and their perceptions regarding policies/actions implemented by the government and their health care settings in handling COVID-19 pandemic

None

Affective response (fear towards COVID-19)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; self-administered questionnaire; 3-point Likert-type scale

Adhena and Hidru 2020 [64]

Ethiopia

COVID-19

General adult population

To assess the knowledge, attitude, and practice of high-risk age groups towards COVID-19 prevention and control

KAP

Perceived likelihood (think he/she is at risk of getting sick with the new coronavirus)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; yes/no response options

Akalu et al. 2020 [57]

Ethiopia

COVID-19

General adult population

To determine the knowledge, attitudes, and practices towards COVID-19 and associated factors of poor knowledge and practice among chronic disease patients

KAP

Perceived likelihood (risk of infection with COVID-19)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; 4-point Likert-type scale

Akram et al. 2015 [40]

Pakistan

Cutaneous leishmaniasis

General adult population

To assess the level of knowledge, attitude and practices of the community related to cutaneous leishmaniasis

KAP

Perceived severity (seriousness of the disease as compared to dengue fever)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; choice of two comparative statements: Leishmaniasis is more serious than dengue fever OR dengue fever is more serious than leishmaniasis

Alyousefi et al. 2016 [51]

Yemen

Dengue fever

General adult population

To describe the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of local urban communities towards dengue fever

KAP

Perceived severity (dengue fever is a serious disease)

Perceived likelihood (I am at risk of dengue fever)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; 4-point Likert-type scale

Asnakew et al. 2020 [62]

Ethiopia

COVID-19

General adult population

To assess the community’s level of risk perception of COVID-19, precautionary behaviour, and intention to comply with the nonpharmaceutical preventive measures

None

Perceived likelihood (likelihood of being infected with the COVID-19 at any point in the future/likelihood of families or friends will be infected with the COVID-19 at any point in the future/likelihood they will contract COVID-19 from families or friends)

Perceived severity (subjective: chance of having recovering from COVID-19/chance of surviving if infected with COVID-19/chance of having no symptoms if infected with COVID-19/the chance of having mild disease if infected with COVID-19 i.e. e.g. can go about daily tasks normally)—(objective: perceived seriousness of COVID-19)

Affective perception (their level of worry due to COVID-19)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; self-administered questionnaire; 5-point Likert-type scale

Ayegbusi et al. 2016 [67]

Nigeria

Ebola virus disease

General adult population

To examine the perception of the target population on their vulnerability to EVD and the prevention practices they observe to guard against being infected

Weberian social action theory

Perceived likelihood (to be infected to COVID-19)

Cross-sectional study; qualitative data; in-depth interviews; cannot be discerned from paper

Bell et al. 2017 [72]

Liberia

Ebola virus disease

Health professionals

To explore healthcare providers’ perceptions and reactions to the EVD epidemic

None

Affective perception (tell us about your biggest fears for yourself as a community health worker because of Ebola)

Cross-sectional study; qualitative data; semi-structured focus group discussions; open-ended question

Berman et al. 2017 [58]

Liberia

Ebola virus disease

General adult population

To rapidly collect information from communities on the front lines of the outbreak

The ideation metatheory

Perceived likelihood (how likely are you to be infected?)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; SMS-based survey; 3-point Likert-type scale

Blum et al. 2014 [39]

Malawi

Typhoid fever

General adult population

To investigate factors associated with the acceptability of typhoid vaccine in response to this ongoing typhoid outbreak

None

Perceived severity (perceived severity of typhoid compared with other common illnesses)

Cross-sectional; qualitative data; freelisting exercises, in-depth interviews; free listing and open-ended questions

Chaudhary et al. 2020 [74]

Pakistan

COVID-19

Health professionals

To evaluate/contrast the clinical and non-clinical oral healthcare workers’ concerns, perceived impact, and preparedness for the COVID-19 pandemic

None

Perceived susceptibility to infection (the job risks an exposure to COVID-19)

Affective response (fear of getting infected by COVID-19)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; self-administered questionnaire; 6-point Likert-type scale

Claude et al. 2019 [107]

Democratic Republic of Congo

Ebola virus disease

General adult population

To explore social resistance to EVD control efforts during the current persistent outbreak

None

Perceived likelihood (participants were asked to identify whether they felt they were at high, intermediate or low risk of contracting EVD)

Cross-sectional study; mixed methods; focus group discussions, interviewer-administered questionnaire; 3-point Likert-type scale

Coulibaly et al. 2013 [108]

Ivory Coast

Pandemic influenza A (H1N1)

Health professionals

To determine health professionals’ level of knowledge about the influenza pandemic and their willingness to be vaccinated

None

Perceived likelihood (feel at risk of contracting pH1N1)

Affective response (fear of becoming infected with pH1N1 AND fear of becoming influenza infected at the hospital)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; yes/no response options

Echoru et al. 2020 [43]

Uganda

COVID-19

General adult population

To determine the knowledge, attitudes, and preparedness/practices of lecturers and students in the fight against COVID-19

None

Perceived severity (COVID-19 is dangerous and can kill)

Perceived likelihood (anyone can get COVID-19)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; self-administered questionnaire; yes/no response options

Ekra et al. 2017 [81]

Ivory Coast

Dengue fever

Health professionals

To identify the determinants of good practices in the diagnosis of dengue among healthcare workers

None

Perceived severity (perception of the seriousness of the disease)

Perceived likelihood (their perception of the fact that Cote d’Ivoire can be at risk of dengue)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; yes/no response options

Englert et al. 2019 [76]

Uganda

Ebola virus disease

Marburg virus disease

Health professionals

To describe the perspectives and actions of health workers in three filovirus outbreaks between 2000 and 2012

The social process theory

Affective perception (how concerned were you for your own well-being?—did you ever experience fear, anxiety or depression from the outbreaks?)

Cross-sectional; qualitative data; in-depth interviews;

Open-ended question

Ernst et al. 2016 [47]

Kenya

Malaria

General adult population

To determine factors associated with household-level ownership of bed nets factors associated with not using all available bed nets

The health belief model

Perceived likelihood (family at risk of malaria)

Perceived severity (malaria is serious)

Perceived susceptibility (children are more at risk than adults)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; unable to ascertain from paper

Fatiregun et al. 2012 [78]

Nigeria

Pandemic influenza A (H1N1)

Health professionals

To determine the willingness of doctors and nurses working in health facilities to receive the pandemic A vaccine and to identify factors associated with their willingness to receive the vaccination

None

Perceived likelihood (perception of risk of contracting the infection)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; self-administered questionnaire; risk perception of contracting infection was scored based on 13 questions from the risk perception section. Each correct perception was awarded one point while the wrong perception was awarded no points. Scores < 7 were categorised as low risk perception, and those with and scores ≥ 7 were categorised as high risk perception

Ghazi et al. 2020 [63]

Iraq

COVID-19

General adult population

To assess knowledge, attitude, and practice toward COVID-19

KAP

Perceived severity (I think COVID-19 is contagious and can lead to death/cannot lead to death AND I feel COVID-19 is dangerous/very dangerous/seriously dangerous/not dangerous)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; self-administered questionnaire; choice of two comparative statements: contagious and cannot lead to death OR contagious and can lead to death, 4-point Likert-type scale

Gidado et al. 2015 [59]

Nigeria

Ebola virus disease

General adult population

To assess public knowledge, perception and adequacy of information on EVD

None

Perceived likelihood (risk of contracting infection)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; unable to ascertain from paper

Girma et al. 2020 [75]

Ethiopia

COVID-19

Health professionals

To assess health professionals’ risk perception and their precautionary behavioural responses

None

Perceived likelihood (perception of risk of contracting the infection)

Perceived severity

Perceived susceptibility (perceived vulnerability to infection, and respondents’ self-efficacy)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; self-administered questionnaire; 5-point Likert-type scale

Girum et al. 2017 [48]

Ethiopia

Malaria

General adult population

To identify factors affecting prevention and control of malaria

None

Perceived severity (I think that malaria is a life-threatening disease)

Perceived likelihood (I am sure that anyone can get malaria)

Perceived susceptibility (In my opinion, children and pregnant women are at higher risk of malaria)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; 4-point Likert-type scale

Hakim et al. 2020 [109]

Pakistan

COVID-19

Health professionals

To assess self-reported access to PPE, whether adequate information was provided about the use of PPE, COVID-19 risk perceptions, and the ability to perform donning and doffing of PPE

None

Perceived likelihood (risk perception of contracting the disease during professional duty and daily life)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; self-administered questionnaire; 4-point Likert-type scale

Idris et al. 2015 [79]

Nigeria

Ebola virus disease

Health professionals

To determine and compare what two subgroups of the health community know, what their beliefs are, and what their current practices are with regards to EVD

None

Perceived likelihood (risk of contracting infection)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; 5-point Likert-type scale

Ilesanmi and Afolabi 2020 [53]

Nigeria

COVID-19

General adult population

To assess the perception and practices of community members in urban areas regarding COVID-19

None

Perceived likelihood (risk of contracting infection)

perceived severity (It is a deadly disease)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; yes/no response options

Iliyasu et al. 2015 [77]

Nigeria

Ebola virus disease

General adult population, health professionals

To ascertain the knowledge, attitude and practice of EVD in three states of Nigeria

KAP

Affective perception (fear of getting EVD)

Perceived severity (Ebola is a serious disease)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; self-administered questionnaire; perceived likelihood: 10-point Likert-type scale, perceived severity: 4-point Likert-type scale

Iorfa et al. 2020 [69]

Nigeria

COVID-19

General adult population

To explore the relationship between COVID-19 knowledge, risk perception, and precautionary behaviour, and to determine whether this relationship differed for men and women

The moderated mediation model

Affective perception (worry about contracting COVID-19)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; self-administered questionnaire; 7-point Likert-type scale

Irwin et al. 2017 [110]

Guinea

Ebola virus disease

General adult population

To assess attitudes about Ebola vaccines

None

Perceived likelihood (self-rated risk of contracting Ebola)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; 3-point Likert-type scale

Jalloh et al. 2018 [111]

Sierra Leone

Ebola virus disease

General adult population

To estimate prevalence of mental health symptoms and factors associated with having symptoms

None

Affective perception (perceived threat of Ebola to country, district, community, household)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; 4-point Likert-type scale

Jiang et al. 2016 [60]

Sierra Leone

Ebola virus disease

General adult population

To understand the knowledge, attitudes, practices, and perceived risk of EVD among the public

None

Perceived likelihood (risk of contracting infection)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; 3-point Likert-type scale

Kabito et al. 2020 [54]

Ethiopia

COVID-19

General adult population

To analyse the prevalence and factors associated with risk perception of COVID-19 infections

None

Perceived susceptibility (how likely one considered oneself (his/her families) would be infected with COVID-19 if no preventive measure will be taken)

Perceived severity (proxied by how one rated the seriousness of symptoms caused by COVID-19, their perceived chance of having COVID-19 cured and that of survival if infected)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; 5-point Likert-type scale

Kamara et al. 2020 [38]

Sierra Leone

Disease resembling COVID-19 Disease resembling Ebola virus disease

General adult population

To gain insight into how rural people faced with Covid-19 assess epidemic infection risks

None

perceived likelihood (chance of being infected or not)

Perceived severity (chance of dying or surviving the diseases)

Cross-sectional; Qualitative data; An experimental game devised to encourage villagers to talk comparatively about infection risks; preference for one of two scenarios of diseases with likelihood of infection and death

Kaponda et al. 2019 [66]

Malawi

Cholera

General adult population

To investigate drinking water source quality compared with water treatment, risk perception and cholera knowledge for patients who had reported to a health centre for treatment

None

Perceived likelihood (personal risk for contracting cholera in the future)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; 3-point Likert-type scale

Kasereka and Hawkes 2019 [50]

Democratic Republic of Congo

Ebola virus disease

General adult population, health professionals

To probe community beliefs around Ebola and its origins

None

Affective perception (‘Are you worried about Ebola?’)

Cross-sectional study; mixed methods; focus group discussions, Interviewer-administered questionnaire; yes/no response options

Kasereka et al. 2019 [70]

Democratic Republic of Congo

Ebola virus disease

General adult population

To describe patient-reported side effect profiles and vaccination experiences, attitudes towards the vaccine, as well as desires for personal and community vaccination

None

Affective perception (‘Are you worried about Ebola?’)

Perceived likelihood (personal risk of contracting EVD)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; affective perception: yes/no response options, perceived likelihood: 4-point Likert-type scale

Khowaja et al. 2011 [71]

Pakistan

Pandemic influenza A (H1N1)

Health professionals

To assess student awareness of the H1N1 pandemic

None

Affective perception (worried about current global outbreak)

Perceived severity (severity of disease)

Cross-sectional study; Quantitative data; Self-administered questionnaire; 5-point Likert-type scale

Mohamed et al. 2017 [112]

Sudan

Ebola virus disease

General adult population

To explore the knowledge, attitude and practices of rural residents in Sudan regarding Ebola haemorrhagic fever

None

Perceived severity (severity of disease)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; 6-point Likert-type scale

Murele et al. 2014 [113]

Nigeria

Poliomyelitis

General adult population

To explore and document the perceptions of vaccine among care givers who accept or refuse the immunization of their children against polio virus

The health belief model

Perceived susceptibility to polio virus infection

Cross-sectional; qualitative data; in-depth interviews; open-ended question

Ogoina et al. 2016 [83]

Nigeria

Ebola virus disease

Health professionals

To report the opinions and behaviours of healthcare workers during an EVD outbreak

None

Affective perception (affective response: “how would you rate your fear of Ebola?”)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; self-administered questionnaire;10-point Likert-type scale

Olowookere et al. 2015 [80]

Nigeria

Ebola virus disease

Health professionals

To assess the preparedness of health workers in the control and management of EVD

None

Perceived susceptibility (of self: Consider self to be at risk—of others: health workers are prone to having EVD)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; self-administered questionnaire; 3-point Likert-type scale

Ozioko et al. 2018 [56]

Nigeria

Zoonotic infections

General adult population

To evaluate bushmeat dealers’ knowledge and attitudes about zoonotic infections and the risk of transmission to humans

None

Perceived likelihood (contracting a work-related zoonosis)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; yes/no response options

Philavong et al. 2020 [65]

Lao

Zoonotic infections

Ge#neral adult population

To establish baseline characteristics of market traders (demography, geographical origins) and their perception, behaviours and practices in regard to disease risk in markets

None

Perceived likelihood (risk to self of contracting disease from items sold—risk to others in same vendor group from items sold—risk of disease transmission due to occupation)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; yes/no/unsure response options

Rizwan et al. 2020 [42]

Pakistan

COVID-19

General adult population

To determine the knowledge, risk perception and behavioural response of COVID-19

Perceived likelihood (risk of contracting infection to self—to family member—to average Pakistani)

Perceived severity (of disease in general—of disease if personally contracted infection—of disease if family member contracted infection)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; 5-point Likert-type scale

Schaetti et al. 2013 [41]

Democratic Republic of Congo

Kenya

Tanzania (Zanzibar)

Cholera

General adult population

To review and systematically compare local cholera-related recognition, risk perceptions, experience, and meaning in endemic settings

Explanatory Model Interview Catalogue framework

Perceived likelihood (risk to different population groups)

Perceived severity (perceived seriousness of cholera—potential fatality of cholera)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; Perceived likelihood: categorical response options + open-ended question for justification of choice (males or females? adults or children? rich or poor people?), Perceived severity: 4-point Likert-type scale + open-ended question for justification of choice

Schmidt-Hellerau et al. 2020 [61]

Sierra Leone

Ebola virus disease

General adult population

To obtain a contextual understanding of intended and reported protective measures when caring for suspected Ebola patients at home during an outbreak

KAP

Perceived likelihood (perceived risk of contracting EVD in the next 6 months)

Cross-sectional study; mixed methods; interviewer-administered questionnaire, in-depth interviews; 5-point Likert-type scale

Sengeh et al. 2020 [114]

Sierra Leone

COVID-19

General adult population

To assess the public’s knowledge, attitudes and practices about the novel coronavirus

KAP

Perceived likelihood (risk of contracting infection in the next 6 months)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; unable to ascertain from paper

Shabani et al. 2015 [46]

Tanzania

Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

General adult population

To determine perceived risk of RVF among community members

None

Perceived likelihood (perceived risk of contracting RVF)

Perceived severity (RVF is a serious disease)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; 5-point Likert-type scale

Shakeel et al. 2020 [82]

Pakistan

COVID-19

Health professionals

To evaluate the knowledge, attitude, and precautionary practices of healthcare providers towards COVID-19

None

Perceived severity (COVID-19 is a dangerous disease)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; self-administered questionnaire; 5-point Likert-type scale

Tadesse et al. 2020 [115]

Ethiopia

COVID-19

Health professionals

To investigate knowledge, attitudes and practices, and psychological response towards COVID-19 among nurses

None

Perceived likelihood (risk of infection to self—risk of infection to family members)

Affective response (worried that one of your family members will get an infection)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; self-administered questionnaire; 5-point Likert-type scale

ul Haq et al. 2020 [116]

Pakistan

COVID-19

General adult population

To assess the knowledge of the general public both rural and urban about COVID-19; to determine precautionary measures taken by rural and urban people to avoid COVID-19; to determine the factors affecting precautionary measures; to assess the behaviour of rural and urban people towards COVID-19; to check the availability and affordability of essential protective items for rural and urban people

Developed by authors

Perceived severity (how risky is COVID-19 in your view?)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; self-administered questionnaire; 5-point Likert-type scale

Usifoh et al. 2019 [49]

Nigeria

Lassa fever

General adult population

To assess the perceived stigmatization associated with LF outbreaks among university staff and students

None

Perceived likelihood (possibility of Lassa fever infection)

perceived severity (how serious is Lassa fever?)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; self-administered questionnaire; perceived likelihood: 4-point Likert-type scale, perceived severity: 5-point Likert-type scale

Usuwa et al. 2020 [44]

Nigeria

Lassa fever

General adult population

To investigate the knowledge and risk perception of residents towards LF and determine the factors influencing their risk perception in communities that have reported confirmed cases of LF

The health belief model

perceived susceptibility (if you do not take any preventive measures)

Perceived severity (seriousness of illness in general and if contracted by respondent)

Cross-sectional study; quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; 5-point Likert-type scale

Winters et al. 2020 [68]

Sierra Leone

Ebola virus disease

General adult population

To determine how exposure to information sources, knowledge and behaviours potentially influenced risk perceptions during an Ebola Virus Disease outbreak i

KAP

Perceived likelihood (level of risk in getting Ebola in the next 6 months)

Longitudinal study (3 cross-sectional surveys, different respondents in each survey); quantitative data; interviewer-administered questionnaire; 4-point Likert-type scale

Xu et al. 2019 [55]

Myanmar

Dengue fever

General adult population

To investigate the health beliefs, knowledge and perception about dengue fever

None

Perceived likelihood (perceived risk of contracting dengue fever)

Perceived severity (dengue fever is a serious illness—dengue fever is a deadly disease)

Cross-sectional study; mixed methods; interviewer-administered questionnaire, in-depth interviews; Unable to ascertain from paper

Xu et al. 2020 [52]

Myanmar

Dengue fever

General adult population

To understand health beliefs in general, and knowledge and treatment-seeking and prevention behaviours related to dengue fever

None

Perceived likelihood (perceived risk of contracting dengue fever)

Perceived severity (dengue fever is a serious illness—dengue fever is a deadly disease)

Cross-sectional study; mixed methods; interviewer-administered questionnaire, in-depth interviews; unable to ascertain from paper