Table 1 Characteristics of 20 included studies
References | Study design and setting | Recruitment period (months) | Year of data collection | Country | Number of patients | Age (years) | Number of patients with unidentified aetiology of fever (%) | Aetiologic agents identified (tested positive) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zenebe et al. 2011 [24] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 5 | 2009/2010 | Ethiopia | 260 | 18–61 | 237 (91.2%) | Coagulase negative staphylococci (CoNS); Staphylococcus aureus; Escherichia coli; Klebsiella pneumoniae |
Guillebaud et al. 2018 [35] | Cross-sectional, community-based | 12 | 2014/2015 | Madagascar | 253 | ≥ 15 | 167 (66.0%) | Plasmodium spp.; Mycobacterium tuberculosis; Leptospira spp.; Epstein-Barr virus; Hepatitis B virus (HBV); Human rhinovirus |
Ali et al. 2020 [38] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 2 | 2015 | Tanzania | 90 | 18–70 | 48 (53.3%) | Dengue virus; Brucella spp.; Rickettsia spp. |
Archibald et al. 1998 [8] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 2 | 1995 | Tanzania | 1425 | > 15 | 1302 (91.4%) | S. aureus; non-typhi Salmonella spp.; Streptococcus pneumoniae; Cryptococcus neoformans; M. tuberculosis |
Crump et al. 2011 [21] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 1 | 2007/2008 | Tanzania | 403 | > 13 | 134 (33.2%) | Salmonella serotype typhi; S. pneumoniae; C. neoformans; M. tuberculosis; E. coli |
Crump et al. 2013 [29] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 12 | 2007/2008 | Tanzania | 403 | > 13 | 134 (33.2%) | Chikungunya virus; Rickettsia spp.; Leptospira spp.; spotted fever group (SFG) Rickettsia spp.; Coxiella burnetii; Brucella spp.; fungus |
Felekel et al. 2015 [31] | Cross-sectional, health centre | 1 | 2011 | Ethiopia | 215 | > 16 | 96 (44.7%) | Salmonella serotype typhi; Typhus group (TG) Rickettsia spp.; Borrelia spp. |
Hertz et al. 2012 [25] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 12 | 2007/2008 | Tanzania | 403 | > 13 | 134 (33.2%) | Dengue virus; Chikungunya virus |
Mease et al. 2011 [22] | Cross-sectional, population-based | 2 | 2004 | Kenya | 1,141 |  > 18 | 513 (44.9%) | Chikungunya virus; Dengue virus; West Nile virus; Yellow fever virus |
Meremo et al. 2012 [27] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 6 | 2011 | Tanzania | 346 | > 18 | 313 (90.5%) | Salmonella spp.; E. coli; S. pneumoniae; S. aureus |
Meremo et al. 2012 [26] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 6 | 2011 | Tanzania | 346 | > 18 | 313 (90.5%) | M. tuberculosis; Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) |
Moon et al. 2014 [30] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 4 | 2011/2012 | Tanzania | 193 | ≥ 13 | 174 (90.0%) | Plasmodium spp.; bacteria |
Nadjm et al. 2012 [28] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 6 | 2007 | Tanzania | 198 | > 13 | 137 (69.2%) | Non-typhi Salmonella spp.; Streptococcus pyogenes; E. coli |
Hercik et al. 2018 [36] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 1 | 2014 | Tanzania | 135 | ≥ 15 | 97 (28.2%) | Plasmodium spp.; Leptospira spp.; Dengue virus; Haemophilus influenzae; Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV); human Rhinovirus; Adenovirus |
Ochieng et al. 2015 [32] | Cross-sectional – population-based | NA | 2007 | Kenya | 1,091 | 15–64 | 881 (80.8%) | Dengue virus; Rift Valley fever virus; Chikungunya virus |
Prabhu et al. 2011 [23] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 12 | 2007/2008 | Tanzania | 403 |  > 13 | 287 (71.2%) | SFG Rickettsia; TG Rickettsia; C. burnetii |
Ssali et al. 1998 [20] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 4 | 1997 | Uganda | 299 | 15–64 | 234 (78.3%) | M. tuberculosis; S. pneumoniae; Salmonella spp.; E. coli; Neisseria spp.; S. aureus |
Hercik et al. 2017 [33] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 12 | 2014/2015 | Tanzania | 632 | ≥ 15 | 114 (18.0%) | S. aureus; K. pneumonia; P. aeruginosa; S. pneumonia; Moraxella catarrhalis; Dengue virus; Adenovirus; human Rhinovirus (HRV); H. influenzae Plasmodium spp.; Rickettsia spp.; C. burnetii |
Woodruff et al. 1988 [19] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based |  | 1986 | South Sudan | 130 | 15–85 | 69 (53.1%) | Flaviviruses, Alphavirus, Bunyamwera virus, Phlebovirus |
Zerfu et al. 2018 [37] | Cross-sectional, community-based | 3 | 2016 | Ethiopia | 536 | > 15 | 394 (73.5%) | TG rickettsia; Brucella spp. |
Endale et al. 2020 [40] | Cross-sectional, community-based | 7 | 2018 | Ethiopia | 281 | 21–80 | 154 (54.8%) | Chikungunya virus, Yellow fever virus |
Budodo et al. 2020 [39] | Cross-sectional, community-based | 3 | 2020 | Tanzania | 191 | ≥ 18 | 169 (89.6%) | Rift Valley fever virus, Chikungunya virus |
Boilat-Blanco et al. 2018 [34] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 12 | 2013/2014 | Tanzania | 519 | > 20 | 56 (11.0%) | Dengue virus; Plasmodium spp.; Salmonella typhi |
Boilat-Blanco et al. 2021 [41] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 12 | 2013/2014 | Tanzania | 519 | > 20 | 56 (11.0%) | Dengue virus; Epstein-Barr virus; West Nile virus; Cytomegalovirus; HIV; Hepatitis B virus; Hepatitis C virus; S. typhi; S. pneumonia; Pasmodium spp.; Histoplasma capsulatum; C. neoformans; Pneumocystis jirovecii |
Akelew et al. 2022 [42] | Cross-sectional, hospital-based | 3 | 2019 | Ethiopia | 200 | ≥ 15 | 159 (79.5%) | Plasmodium spp.; Dengue virus, bacteria (S. aureus; K. pneumoniae; Enterobacter cloacae; TG Rickettsia) |