Table 1 Baseline characteristics and infection status of all participants from UK biobank

White ethnicity or race^a

392,279 (95.2)

77,577 (95.8)

206,527 (95.6)

108,175 (93.8)

 < 0.0001

TDI^b

− 2.1744 (− 3.6664, 0.4384)

− 2.7174 (− 4.011, − 0.5936)

− 2.4366 (− 3.7872, − 0.2287)

− 0.9134 (− 2.9558, 2.2916)

 < 0.0001

Female^a

215,933 (52.4)

39,320 (48.6)

111,935 (51.8)

64,678 (56.1)

 < 0.0001

Age^b

56.1625 ± 8.0839

52.5195 ± 7.2159

55.7701 ± 7.9982

59.4541 ± 7.5375

 < 0.0001

BMI^b

27.3836 ± 4.7556

26.4616 ± 4.2599

27.3404 ± 4.6486

28.1116 ± 5.1484

 < 0.0001

BMI group^a

 ≤ 18.5

2055 (0.5)

388 (0.5)

936 (0.4)

731 (0.6)

 < 0.0001

 18.51–29.9

311,295 (75.5)

66,480 (82.1)

164,607 (76.2)

80,208 (69.5)

 ≥ 30

98,908 (24.0)

14,081 (17.4)

50,424 (23.3)

34,403 (29.8)

SES ^a

 High

80,949 (19.6)

80,949 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

 < 0.0001

 Medium

215,967 (52.4)

0 (0)

215,967 (100)

0 (0)

 Low

115,342 (28.0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

115,342 (100)

Income (£)^a

 > 100,000

22,422 (5.4)

21,977 (27.1)

0 (0)

445 (0.4)

 < 0.0001

 52,000–100,000

84,213 (20.4)

57,688 (71.3)

26,525 (12.3)

0 (0)

 31,000–51,999

107,833 (26.2)

1284 (1.6)

106,067 (49.1)

482 (0.4)

 18,000–30,999

104,914 (25.4)

0 (0)

83,375 (38.6)

21,539 (18.7)

 < 18,000

92,876 (22.5)

0 (0)

0 (0)

92,876 (80.5)

Education^a

 College or University degree

144,681 (35.1)

63,515 (78.5)

65,794 (30.5)

15,372 (13.3)

 < 0.0001

 A levels/AS levels or equivalent

48,049 (11.7)

13,909 (17.2)

25,961 (12.0)

8179 (7.1)

 O levels/GCSEs or equivalent

87,724 (21.3)

2024 (2.5)

64,330 (29.8)

21,370 (18.5)

 CSEs or equivalent

22,284 (5.4)

250 (0.3)

15,863 (7.3)

6171 (5.4)

 NVQ or HND or HNC or equivalent

27,310 (6.6)

490 (0.6)

18,833 (8.7)

7987 (6.9)

 Other professional qualifications

20,944 (5.1)

761 (0.9)

15,190 (7.0)

4993 (4.3)

 None of the above

61,266 (14.9)

0 (0)

9996 (4.6)

51,270 (44.5)

 Unemployed^a

30,261 (7.3)

4850 (6.0)

3407 (1.6)

22,004 (19.1)

 < 0.0001

Lifestyle scores^a

 0–1

77,022 (26.5)

15,471 (24.8)

38,605 (25.0)

22,946 (31.1)

 < 0.0001

 2–3

159,055 (54.8)

36,400 (58.3)

86,751 (56.2)

35,904 (48.7)

 4–6

54,341 (18.7)

10,613 (17.0)

28,896 (18.7)

14,832 (20.1)

Lifestyle factors

 No current smoking^a

243,416 (59.2)

52,813 (65.3)

130,188 (60.4)

60,415 (52.6)

 < 0.0001

 Regular physical activity^a

95,450 (23.5)

15,571 (19.3)

51,377 (24.0)

28,502 (25.5)

 < 0.0001

 Healthy diet^a

96,570 (23.6)

19,229 (23.8)

50,883 (23.7)

26,458 (23.3)

0.006

 No alcohol consumption^a

15,550 (3.8)

1476 (1.8)

6508 (3.0)

7566 (6.6)

 < 0.0001

 Healthy sleep pattern^a

136,438 (35.5)

32,085 (41.9)

72,595 (36.0)

31,758 (29.9)

 < 0.0001

 Never use cannabis^a

106,210 (76.8)

26,058 (67.6)

60,802 (79.6)

19,350 (83.2)

 < 0.0001

 APS^b

64.1294 (58.4819, 69.7389)

63.2826 (56.7590, 69.6608)

63.6288 (58.1162, 69.0290)

65.4867 (60.2623, 71.0704)

 < 0.0001

 EPS^b

116.3913 (106.8239, 126.3875)

115.0965 (104.0680, 126.3135)

115.5374 (106.1875, 125.1584)

118.6827 (109.7671, 128.6168)

 < 0.0001

Environmental pollutants

 PM_2.5^b

9.9200 (9.2800, 10.5600)

9.8000 (9.0800, 10.4800)

9.8800 (9.2400, 10.4800)

10.0900 (9.4800, 10.7300)

 < 0.0001

 PM_2.5–10^b

6.1000 (5.8400, 6.6300)

6.1100 (5.8300, 6.6500)

6.0900 (5.8300, 6.5900)

6.1300 (5.8600, 6.6600)

 < 0.0001

 PM₁₀^b

16.0200 (15.2300, 16.9900)

16.0000 (15.0700, 17.0400)

15.9800 (15.1800, 16.9200)

16.1000 (15.4200, 17.0900)

 < 0.0001

 NO₂^b

26.1000 (21.3600, 31.1400)

25.8500 (20.2900, 31.5800)

25.6000 (21.0500, 30.5100)

27.1500 (22.6800, 31.9300)

 < 0.0001

 NO_X^b

42.2600 (34.2300, 50.6300)

41.0500 (32.0600, 50.4300)

41.5300 (33.7300, 49.5600)

44.2200 (36.7300, 52.6700)

 < 0.0001

 Noise^b

55.0900 (53.6600, 57.1533)

55.100 (53.6800, 57.2300)

55.0433 (53.6200, 57.0800)

55.1700 (53.7300, 57.2533)

 < 0.0001

 Traffic intensity^b

17,044 (12,581, 25,195)

17,005 (12,591, 24,107)

16,989 (12,378, 25,182)

17,314 (12,802, 25,598)

 < 0.0001

 Distance to road^b

378.7879 (167.7852, 751.8797)

374.5318 (165.8375, 757.5758)

390.6250 (172.7116, 775.1938)

362.3188 (159.7444, 714.2857)

 < 0.0001

Chronic comorbidities

 CVD^a

37,144 (9.0)

3312 (4.1)

16,717 (7.7)

17,115 (14.8)

 < 0.0001

 CAD^a

5308 (1.3)

430 (0.5)

2237 (1.0)

2641 (2.3)

 < 0.0001

 AF^a

5080 (1.2)

578 (0.7)

2363 (1.1)

2139 (1.9)

 < 0.0001

 Stroke^a

2034 (0.5)

225 (0.3)

796 (0.4)

1013 (0.9)

 < 0.0001

 Hypertension^a

30,701 (7.4)

2522 (3.1)

13,694 (6.3)

14,485 (12.6)

 < 0.0001

 Diabetes^a

8379 (2.0)

600 (0.7)

3404 (1.6)

4375 (3.8)

 < 0.0001

 Psychiatric disorders^a

60,105 (14.6)

11,349 (14.0)

30,778 (14.3)

17,978 (15.6)

 < 0.0001

 Anxiety^a

23,690 (5.7)

4923 (6.1)

12,753 (5.9)

6014 (5.2)

 < 0.0001

 Depression^a

46,419 (11.3)

8422 (10.4)

23,451 (10.9)

14,546 (12.6)

 < 0.0001

 Bipolar disorder^a

1635 (0.4)

261 (0.3)

653 (0.3)

721 (0.6)

 < 0.0001

 Cancer^a

31,322 (7.6)

4619 (5.7)

15,975 (7.4)

10,728 (9.3)

 < 0.0001

 Infectious diseases^a

60,771 (14.7)

7276 (9.0)

28,383 (13.1)

25,112 (21.8)

 < 0.0001

 Respiratory infectious diseases^a

2119 (0.5)

247 (0.3)

933 (0.4)

939 (0.8)

 < 0.0001

 Digestive infectious diseases^a

15,019 (3.5)

1806 (2.2)

6933 (3.1)

6280 (5.2)

 < 0.0001

 Blood or sexually transmitted infectious diseases^a

869 (0.2)

106 (0.1)

349 (0.2)

414 (0.4)

 < 0.0001